Rats selectively bred for showing divergent behavioral traits in response to stress or novelty or spontaneous yawning with a divergent frequency show similar changes in sexual behavior: the role of dopamine

Background: Adolescent and adult rats emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) to communicate the appetitive arousal and the presence of positive emotional states to conspecifics. New Method: Based on its communicative function, emission of 50-kHz USVs is increasingly being evaluated in preclinical studies of affective behavior, motivation and social behavior. Results: Emission of 50-kHz USVs is initiated by the activation of dopamine receptors in the shell subregion of the nucleus accumbens. However, several lines of evidence show that non-dopaminergic receptors may influence the numbers of 50-kHz USVs that are emitted, as well as the acoustic parameters of calls. Comparison with Existing Methods: Emission of 50-kHz USVs is a non-invasive method that may be used to study reward and motivation without the need for extensive training and complex animal manipulations. Moreover, emission of 50-kHz USVs can be used alone or combined with other well-standardized behavioral paradigms (e.g., conditioned place preference, self-administration). Conclusions: This review summarizes the current evidence concerning molecular mechanisms that regulate the emission of 50-kHz USVs. Moreover, the review discusses the usefulness of 50-kHz USVs as an experimental tool to investigate how different neurotransmitter systems regulate the manifestations of positive emotional states, and also use of this tool in preclinical modeling of psychiatric diseases.