Are 3D-printed temporal bone models the future of otologic surgical training? A national multicentre validation study

Objective: To validate a novel 3D-printed temporal bone model as an acceptable substitute for cadaveric human temporal bones in otosurgical training. Methods: A 3D-printed healthy temporal bone model was evaluated by 54 otosurgeons (27 experienced and 27 trainees) from Italian universities. Participants performed dissections on the model and completed a 27-question survey comparing the synthetic model with the cadaveric one. The primary outcome was the percentage of average total scores exceeding 3, with acceptability set at > 70%. Results: Overall, 80.9% (p < 0.001) of participants rated the model as comparable to the cadaveric temporal bone (average total score exceeding 3). High scores were observed for "usefulness as a training tool", "task-based usefulness" and "overall reactions" domains with an average total score exceeding 3 in 95.8% (p < 0.001), 83.2% (p < 0.001), and 79% (p = 0.004) of questionnaires respectively. No significant differences were found between experienced and trainee surgeons' evaluations. Conclusions: 3D-printed temporal bone models are a viable, cost-effective, and customisable training tool comparable to cadavers. The realism of the soft tissues still needs to be refined in order to better mimic cadaveric specimens.