Background Cynara cardunculus L. is a low-input crop increasingly relevant in semi-arid regions due to its resilience, ecological value, and versatility. It provides nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications due to its richness in bioactive compounds, particularly cynaropicrin, caffeoylquinic acids, and flavonoids. It has been suggested that the crop should be moved preferentially to marginal environments at higher altitudes, giving greater biomass productivity. However, while environmental conditions are known to influence crop performance, the effects on the plant’s metabolome remain underexplored. Hence, this study investigates how altitudinal gradients and phenological stages shape the leaf metabolic profile of wild C. cardunculus populations, with the aim of identifying key adaptive metabolic responses and determining the optimal harvest period for herbal use. Results By means of Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR)-based metabolomics, supported by two dimensional NMR and Mass spectrometry analyses, we found that cynaropicrin, a key bioactive compound, increases during the flowering stage and in response to high temperatures. Similarly, chiro-inositol, reported here for the first time in C. cardunculus, was also more abundant at the flowering stage. In contrast, leaves at the pre-flowering stage were enriched in amino acids (proline, valine, phenylalanine), sucrose, and luteolin-malonyl hexoside. As for the altitude, we found that leaves collected from plants growing below 300 m a.s.l. showed the highest accumulation of aromatic compounds before flowering, while at the flowering stage the leaf metabolome was more homogeneous across the different collection sites. Conclusions In conclusion, the results of this work support the flowering stage as the balsamic time of C. cardunculus. Indeed, leaves collected at this phenological stage, yield a more consistent metabolite profile, enriched in chiro-inositol and cynaropicrin. Moreover, this study confirms the suitability of high-altitude cultivation without compromising the production of key bioactive compounds.
Metabolomic study of Cynara cardunculus L. growing at different altitudes reveals the flowering stage as the balsamic time
De Agostini, Antonio;Sanna, Cinzia;
2026-01-01
Abstract
Background Cynara cardunculus L. is a low-input crop increasingly relevant in semi-arid regions due to its resilience, ecological value, and versatility. It provides nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications due to its richness in bioactive compounds, particularly cynaropicrin, caffeoylquinic acids, and flavonoids. It has been suggested that the crop should be moved preferentially to marginal environments at higher altitudes, giving greater biomass productivity. However, while environmental conditions are known to influence crop performance, the effects on the plant’s metabolome remain underexplored. Hence, this study investigates how altitudinal gradients and phenological stages shape the leaf metabolic profile of wild C. cardunculus populations, with the aim of identifying key adaptive metabolic responses and determining the optimal harvest period for herbal use. Results By means of Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR)-based metabolomics, supported by two dimensional NMR and Mass spectrometry analyses, we found that cynaropicrin, a key bioactive compound, increases during the flowering stage and in response to high temperatures. Similarly, chiro-inositol, reported here for the first time in C. cardunculus, was also more abundant at the flowering stage. In contrast, leaves at the pre-flowering stage were enriched in amino acids (proline, valine, phenylalanine), sucrose, and luteolin-malonyl hexoside. As for the altitude, we found that leaves collected from plants growing below 300 m a.s.l. showed the highest accumulation of aromatic compounds before flowering, while at the flowering stage the leaf metabolome was more homogeneous across the different collection sites. Conclusions In conclusion, the results of this work support the flowering stage as the balsamic time of C. cardunculus. Indeed, leaves collected at this phenological stage, yield a more consistent metabolite profile, enriched in chiro-inositol and cynaropicrin. Moreover, this study confirms the suitability of high-altitude cultivation without compromising the production of key bioactive compounds.
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